1984 And Lord of the Flies Essay

Lord of the Flies, by William Golding, and 1984, By George Orwell, both portray the power of the government and the revolts that develop, while expressing a different nature of fear. Both books have a strong government possessing power and control over all the citizens. The novels compare in expressing fear but, contrast in showing completely divergent types of fear. Each piece of literature displays jealousy and hatred towards the government which leads to revolts. Furthermore, in the book, Lord of the Flies, one boy, Ralph, rules over several boys while they are stranded on an island. The books Lord of the Flies and 1984 both have communities with an overruling government using extreme power. Lord of the Flies is about twenty boys who are stranded with no adult authority on a deserted island after their plane crashes. One of the oldest boys at the age of twelve, Ralph, becomes chief because he holds the conch shell and the boys all agree to follow his orders. The book 1984 takes place in the totalitarian country of Oceania after World War II. This powerful country is under full control of their government known as The Party and all the citizens are watched throughout the day by telescreens placed all over their communities. In the Lord of the Flies, Ralph quickly declares himself chief and exerts his power on his fellow tribesmen in attempt of running an organized community. As chief, Ralph orders each of the boys a job to fulfill to make the community run smoothly. One of the boys, Jack, is in charge of keeping the fire lit and under control. Ralph’s powerfulness is expressed when Jack leaves the fire unattended as a ship passes the island. â€Å"Ralph pushes piggy to one side. â€Å"I was chief, and you are going to do what I said† (Golding 70). Once Ralph sees the ship at a distant from the island and realizes the fire is at a low ember he becomes outraged. He pushes piggy and demands Jack to obey his orders. Ralph knew it was crucial to keep the fire going to get the attention of the sailors on the ship. See more: Sleep Deprivation Problem Solution Speech Essay This was a missed opportunity by the boys and Ralph uses his power to make sure everyone executes their job. Ralph does not yell because he is arrogant, he uses his power to make sure the boys get home safely. Similarly, in 1984, the government is referred to as the Party and it has power over all the citizens. The telescreens are video cameras placed around the cities including inside everyone’s home. Also, the Party hangs propaganda around the cities to remind the citizens to obey all rules of The Party. In the beginning of the book the propaganda is explained as â€Å"The black-mustachio’d face gazed down from every commanding corner. There was one on the house front immediately opposite. Big Brother Is Watching You, the caption said, while the dark eyes looked deep into his own† (Orwell 2). Big Brother is the head of The Party and complete dictator of Oceania. These posters are used to remind the citizens they are being watched at all times. The propaganda used in the communities portrays the power of Big Brother and The Party. The posters are hung everywhere so the citizens are constantly faced with looking their dictator in the face. The books Lord of the Flies and1984 both portray a strong central government with a powerful dictator ruling over both communities. Virgina Tiger, professor and chair of English at Rutgers University in New Brunswick and an author of four books, is a critic on Lord of the Flies. Tiger said â€Å"Middle-class Ralph, with his boy scout skills, fair complexion, and sense of fair play, is the son of a naval officer, thus is he closely linked to Britain’s past magisterial powers on the seas† (Tiger). In this quote she is characterizing Ralph. His father is a naval officer so he is closely linked to the powerful force of the Briti sh Navy. Tiger believes Ralph was declared leader because of the skills he possesses as well as his father’s strong leadership qualities displayed in the Navy. Similarly, critics of the book 1984 acknowledge the power of the government and its rule over the people. Victoria Gaydosik, an associate professor at Southwestern Oklahoma State University and a published editor of young adult books, is a critic of 1984. She said â€Å"The ruling political system, Ingsoc, venerates the leader (possibly mythical) Big Brother; members of the Inner Party exercise the real power behind the ubiquitous face of Big Brother. Winston, a lowly member of the outer party, has no power to wield, and the state is interested only in his obedience to the will of the Party† (Gaydosik). Gaydosik says The Party only cares of the citizens’ obedience to the will of The Party meaning The Party has complete control and power over all the citizens. Both the critics of Lord of the Flies and 1984 recognize the power of the governments in both communities. In both of the books, Lord of the Flies and 1984, an expression of fear is present towards contrary ideas. In Lord of the Flies, the young boys are stranded on a deserted island and become scared of what else could be on the island. Also, they fear dead man connected to a parachute that landed on top of a mountain on the island. They boys believe it is some sort of beast and set up to kill it. In 1984, the main character, Winston Smith, faces the fear of being caught by the Party for his rebellious acts throughout the book. Conversely, in Lord of the Flies, the boys are afraid of a mysterious object attached to a parachute that floats on top of a mountain on the island. In Lord of the Flies, two boys are taking care of the fire when they spot what they believe is a beast on the mountain. They are extremely frightened and run to Ralph for help. â€Å"They became motionless, gripped in each other’s arms, four unwinking eyes aimed two mouths open† (Golding 98). The boys are still at young ages of around six to twelve years old. The surprise of seeing an unrecognizable body with eyes immediately brought the boys to the conclusion the body was a beast. This puts a fear in all the boys of the unknown on the island. The boys are scared of what else could be on the island and what was the â€Å"beast† the two boys saw. The boys have no adult protection from the beast and fear what could happen to them. On the contrary, the citizens in 1984 fear their government and the cruel punishments resulting from not abiding the laws. The Party is extremely controlling and has strict laws for all the citizens to obey. Winston meets a girl, Julia, and they have to plan to meet secretly to see each other because their sexual relationship is not allowed in Oceania. Julia says, â€Å"We can come here once again, it’s generally safe to use any hide-out twice. But not for another month or two of course† (Orwell 112). This occurs when Julia and Winston first start seeing each other and Julia is explaining to him they could come back to their hide-out but not for a couple months because it would be suspicious. They have to be cautious with their secret relationship because it can result in cruel punishment from The Party. Throughout the book they must face the fear of being caught by The Party and be sentenced to death. In both books, Lord of the Flies and 1984, a portrayal of fear is present but of contrasting ideas. A critic Paul Crawford is currently an assistant professor of history at California University of Pennsylvania and also published a book and many online articles including literary criticism on Lord of the Flies. In his criticism he says â€Å"They face beasts and phantoms in a succession of apparently supernatural events. Uncertain and fearful, the boys are subjected to unexplained phenomena. Suspense and hesitation as to the nature of the â€Å"beast† follow, and their fear increases accordingly† (Crawford). Crawford is saying that the boys were faced with beasts and unknown objects under strange circumstances. Suspense rises when the boys see the beast and th eir fear increases in result of the unknown on the island. The boys fear the unknown and the beast because they don’t have protection and don’t know what the mysterious beast will do. In contrast to this the main character of 1984, Winston Smith, faces the fear of being seized by the government for is unacceptable relationship with Julia. Critic of 1984, Jane Graves, is an award-winning author of romance novels. She states in an online article, â€Å"After many difficult encounters where they attempt to hide from the telescreens, they agree to meet in a clearing in the woods. Here they are able to be free with one another and have sex for the first time† (Graves). Graves explains the troubles in which Winston and Julia face to have sexual intercourse with one another. They have to avoid being seen on the video cameras around the cities and meet each other in the woods. Betrayal of The Party and Big Brother leads to severe consequences so Julia and Winston must always face the fear of being caught. The books Lord of the Flies and 1984 both express fear but of different concepts and situations. Lord of the Flies and 1984 compare in possessing rebellious groups with revolutionary beliefs against the government. In Lord of the Flies, one of the boys, Jack, is upset with the decision of making Ralph chief. Jack believes he is a more qualified chief and begins leading his own group of kids. In 1984 Winston Smith believes the government is corrupt and controls the future and the citizens by erasing the past. Winston starts having rebellious thoughts and believes in a revolutionary group named the Brotherhood against The Party. In comparison to the Brotherhood, Jack, from the Lord of the Flies, goes against Ralph and leads his own group of kids in a hunt for the beast. In Lord of the Flies when two boys spot a mysterious beast, they all start climbing the mountain where it landed in search of it. Ralph decides to head back to their camp because the boys were getting tired but Jack ref uses. Jack says â€Å"I’m going up the mountain to look for the beast now† (Golding 119). Jack demands to search for the beast going against Ralph’s decision of taking a rest from searching. A couple other boys agree with Jack and head up the mountain while Ralph and the rest of the boys go back to their camp. After disagreeing with making Ralph the chief, Jack finally makes a stand and refuses to take orders from Ralph. Likewise, in 1984, Winston Smith disagrees with the government and makes a stand against The Party. He begins by writing rebellious thoughts in his diary and wants to break the laws of Oceania by performing a sexual act. Winston believes having sex is rebelling against the government. Orwell says, â€Å"And what he wanted, more even than to be loved, was to break down that wall of virtue, even if it were only once in his whole life. The sexual act, successfully performed, was rebellion† (Orwell 60). Winston’s dream comes true when he met Julia and finds himself in a sexual relationship with her. Winston’s main goal throughout the story is to rebel against The Party and to make his own decisions. Winston breaks the virtues of The Party and successfully rebels against Big Brother with his sexual involvement with Julia. The books Lord of the Flies and 1984 compare in possessing characters that clash with their respective governments’ ideals and partake in rebellious acts. Berthold Schoene-Harwood is a critic of Lord of the Flies as well as a teacher in Liverpool at John Moores University and a successful author and editor. Berthold says, â€Å"The boys engage in a relentless, ultimately self-annihilating battle against their own nature. In their attempt to assert themselves as men†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Schoene-Harwood). He is saying the boys find themselves fighting against each other to prove who is more of a man. These battles lead to the death of some of the children because they have become savages from their extended amount of time on the island. Jack acts out agai nst Ralph because he does not want to be controlled by him. Jack deems he is his own man and can make his decisions which results in his revolt against Ralph. Similarly, in1984, Winston acts out against the government through performing rebellious acts. Gorman Beauchamp, a critic of 1984, graduated from the University of Michigan and is currently an associate professor emeritus at the University of Michigan as well as a published author. Beauchamp states, â€Å"But because the whole duty of citizens is to love Big Brother, their love for one another is perforce politically subversive† (Beauchamp). In this quotation he is explains the duty of the citizens is to love their leader and Winston and Julia’s sexual relationship is an act of betrayal towards Big Brother. Because of Winston’s disagreement with the party and hatred towards Big Brother, he is revolting against the government. The critics Schoene-Harwood and Beauchamp confirm the exertion which defiant acts are displayed in the books Lord of the Flies and 1984. The books Lord of the Flies and 1984 display powerful governments as well as insubordinate acts against the government with divergent fears expressed in both. Lord of the Flies has a chief, Ralph, who has complete rule over all the boys on the island compared to Big Brother in1984 who powerfully rules over the citizens of Oceania. Both books present fear, but in Lord of the Flies the boys dread the unknown on the island compared to the despair of being arrested by the government in 1984. The revolting groups formed in Lord of the Flies and 1984 relate in both opposing the ideas of their government. Both books are similar in possessing powerful governments with opposing groups as well as expressing fear but the perspective in each is altered through the age of the characters. In Lord of the Flies the characters are very young and fear a far less serious matter of a mysterious beast verse being caught by the police and executed in 1984.

Culture identity Essay

What is culture identity? Culture identity is appreciation and understanding of literature and who or what a person is, identical sameness and distinctive character. It also means what you are and how you live. In this essay I am going to write about â€Å"Search for my Tongue† by Bhatt and â€Å"Hurricane hits England† by Grace Nichols. I have chosen them because they use a mixture of poetic devices, which makes the poem lively and entertaining to read. Firstly the poem Search for my Tongue is about her feeling abandoned and heart-rending because she went to a place where she forgot how to speak her mother tongue while speaking the foreign language, which is upsetting for her since she is blissful about speaking her mother tongue. She also tells us in the poem about her experiences and what she has been happening to her. I know this because she uses a range of words for e.g. â€Å"lost and spit† this makes me think that she is losing her memory of how to speak her own language, as this is shameful for her because her mother tongue is part of her identity. She is also trying to get rid of the foreign language as she described it as â€Å"spit†. The word spit creates an image of someone trying to get rid of something ugly in their mouth. Then again in the last part of the poem she is feeling glad and back to being natural because her mother tongue grew back in the night. I know this because she quotes † it pushes the other tongue aside† this line is effective because it makes me feel that she is joyful of getting the chance to speak her language other than the foreign language. The poem Search for my Tongue uses a variety of different language devices for e.g. she states â€Å"grows longer, grows moist and grows strong veins† the poet used repetition so that she can keep the pace going and the rhythm run smoothly and that she just started a new life as she described it in order. However she also uses personification. I know this because she exclaims â€Å"it ties the other tongue in knots† this makes me think that the tongues are combating it out with each other just to tie each other in knots. This is effective for the reader because it engages with the reader so they can be involved in the poem. The poet also uses imagery words so she can catch a picture straight away in the readers mind. I know this because she quotes â€Å"it grows back a stump of shoot†. This makes me think of the tongue capturing the language as fast as a gunshot. Secondly the poem Hurricane hits England by Grace Nichols is about her feeling alienated from life in England and that it took a hurricane to bring her back closer and remind her of her memories. The poet is feeling petrified and dominant.  I know this because she quotes â€Å"fearful and reassuring†. This makes me think that she is very afraid of whats going to happen to her that she stayed awake half the night, on the other hand she is ready to defend and strike anyone.  This is effective because it makes the reader continue to read until he/she finds out what happened at the end. The poem Hurricane hits England uses a wide range of techniques for e.g. she uses lots of rhetorical questions for e.g. she quotes â€Å"tell me why you visit an English coast?† This means that she is trying to tell the hurricane why did it visit her land and not someone else’s. She is also trying to say that did she do anything bad that frustrated the hurricane. This is effective because she does not want an answer however she wants the reader to think of the answer while they are reading it which will make it more interesting to read. The poet also uses similes. I know this because she quotes â€Å"what is the meaning of trees falling heavy as whales†. This means that the hurricane was so physically powerful that when a tree fell it was as heavy as a whale. This line is effective because it makes the reader imagine what would have happened if millions of trees fell which would have killed so many people and destroyed so many homes.  The similarities of the two poems are not quite the same because in the content the two poems talk about the culture identity and about their new place. In the language they use imagery and metaphors however in the structure most of the lines are laid out in paragraphs. The differences between the two poems. In the content Search for my Tongue is about language and Hurricane hits England is about the environment. In the language the poem Search for my Tongue uses personification. I know this because she quoted â€Å"it ties the other tongue in knots†. She also used repetition. I know this because she quoted â€Å"grows moist, grows longer and grows strong veins†. In Hurricane hits England the poet used rhetorical question. I know this because she quotes â€Å"o why is my heart unchained?† The poet also used similes. I know this because she quotes â€Å"trees falling heavy as whales†. In the structure Search for my Tongue is laid out in lines and paragraphs however the poem Hurricane hits England is just laid out in paragraphs and stanzas.  In conclusion I think Search for my Tongue is better because some of the words are in different language, which is interesting to find out and it uses lots of language devices. The poem Hurricane hits England is full of rhetorical questions, which makes it boring and it makes the reader think a lot.

Black Analysis Black Hearts Book Report - 1067 Words

Black Hearts Book Report Reading this book I found it to be very intriguing. It is a story about men from the 101st Airborne Division’s legendary 502nd Infantry Regiment known as â€Å"the Black Heart Brigade. These men were deployed to the country’s worst and most unfavorable location at the most dangerous time. The platoon the book talks about the most would be the Bravo Company First Platoon. They were constantly in a rough patch throughout the entire book, facing constant leadership changed and trying to survive the Triangle of Death. Being in this hostile environment caused many of the soldiers to lose discipline and not even care about life or death for their own sake. Their mentalities were at an all-time low, causing them to do crazy things like rape a fourteen year old Iraqi girl and murdering her and her family cold blooded. It was a tragic deployment and we can clearly see and feel the motions they had during their time in Iraq. First Platoon had many leader s brought in to try and fix the platoon. Sergeant First Class Fenlason was brought into the platoon as the new platoon sergeant on February 4th, 2006. He was not respected right away because he was one who did not have any combat experience. He was just a desk worker who got brought in to fix the platoon with a cocky attitude. From the Joes perspective he did nothing but â€Å"{sit} around smoking cigarettes and drinking coffee, and that’s it. He would do patrols once a month to go and talk to some leaders.† They hatedShow MoreRelatedThe Black Jacobins : A Response For Scott s Conscripts Of Modernity880 Words   |  4 Pages The Black Jacobins: A Response to Scott’s Conscripts of Modernity Whether under the form of ideological or material disciplining, enslavement represents the inaugural form of the Modern Caribbean. This form is to be understood as intractably linked to its always-already dialectical negation: emancipation. 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The Success of the Welfare State Essay - 883 Words

The Success of the Welfare State The Welfare State is a system set up in Britain that takes care of its citizens from the cradle to the grave. From the day they are born in the hospital to the day they are buried and given a funeral service. This includes responsibilities such as health, education, provision of services and benefits, which ensure that people are looked after and taken care of. In Britain, the Welfare State was set up as a safety net to protect the most vulnerable members of society (widows, pensioners, children etc) and to guarantee them a satisfactory level of income, health care, education and housing. Almost 60 years after it was first established, many sociologists are†¦show more content†¦This is very good news and would not have been if it was not for the Welfare State. It is very relaxing to think that we do not have to worry about money when we are injured or become ill because it is free and so this has had many beneficial effects. People are healthier so they live for longer. T his means they have more time to spend with their family and can grow old with their loved ones. Lower infant mortality means that les babies are dying each year. This prevents a lot of heartache. People wont also resent their children when they are born due to financial problems because they will be paid child benefits and other forms of help is there for them. This can reduce abortion and unwanted babies. In addition, we get free education thanks to the Welfare State. This means that more people will be admitted to schools and which increases chances of them leaving school with qualifications and getting a good job. It takes care of unemployment problems so the future is also brighter for future generations and we can be rest assured that the Cycle of Deprivation will not be activated. More and more people have been given the opportunity to train for a job so this also takes care of unemployment problems. 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Family Interview - 1987 Words

Introduction In this essay, I will discuss my experience of interviewing a family and constructing a genogram guided by their narrative. For this task, I purposely chose a family that is very different from my family of origin in terms of their cultural heritage. I will reflect on differences and similarities between our families as well as my prejudices and hypothesis that I inevitably constructed before and during the process. To identify this family, I had to approach some colleagues proposing to them to participate in the interview. Fortunately, one of them introduced me to her friend. Francesca had an interest in psychology, and since she was free and not much committed, I did welcome her with a cup of coffee to share more about the†¦show more content†¦It was suggested by Peter Marris (1980) that â€Å"with the disruption of life-long attachments and external stabilities, meanings get uprooted.† It seemed that during the interview talking about Matteo’s and Francescaà ¢â‚¬â„¢s families made them acutely aware of being very separate from the rest of their family. Francesca shared that experience of moving away from home â€Å"made them stick together and be stronger than ever†. I felt this satisfying my curiosity regarding the impact of migration on their relationship. From the moment they arrived the UK they have already met few Italian friends and this in combination with frequent calls with their family of origin helps them recover a continuity of personal meaning (Falicov, 1993). It made me reflect on my experience of migration and my difficulty of establishing a sense of continuity. It was so because I did not seek to connect with people from my country and wanted to avoid the very people who understood me best. I experienced shame for the political and economic situation in my country and in some way, my family. I desired to build a new life for myself regarding friends, occupation and belonging. I would purposely avoid Latvian or Russian people in the UK, which often left me feeling lonely and misunderstood by individuals from other cultures,Show MoreRelatedA Interview On Family Nursing Essay2220 Words   |  9 PagesFamily nursing, developed with the intent of improving children’s healthcare, is a shift from the traditional patriarchal method of delivering care to a partnership among family members (Wells, 2011). In order to implement family-centered care, the nurse must explore the dynamics in which the patient’s family operates. 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Aggression in sports free essay sample

Aggression is a natural human behavior, that is shown in many different ways depending on the people. Most are able to control it, but there will always be outliers In every situation. A big topic of discussion on aggression Is If sports make us more aggressive than we should be, and if violent sports should be discouraged. A good example of aggressive and violent activity by an athlete Is Michael Vick and his dog fighting situation. Michael Vick was one of the best players at his position In the NFL. He was well liked and respected by many fans. He played college football at Virginia Tech, and placed 3rd place in the helsman trophy race as a freshman. He was then drafted first overall in 2001. In 2007 Vick was found guilty for participating in an illegal organized dog fighting. He was charged with a felony and served almost 2 years in prison. Many there to belief that playing a violent sport led to violent actions. We will write a custom essay sample on Aggression in sports or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Honestly I do believe violent sports do make athletes more aggressive. I believe this ecause statistics show that a football player Is 80% more likely to participate in illegal activity then a non violent sport athlete such as a baseball player. But this is not always the case, there are thousands of way more aggressive people getting In trouble on the streets that do not play sports, and yet are more aggressive. Even though It is not everyone participates In the sport there are overly aggressive members. Also i believe professional sports players need to have more control of themselves and be able to draw a fine line between whats right and wrong. Sometimes athletes who earn a high paycheck often could care less about penalties and fines against them but I think thats completely wrong and that every player should strive for a clean record. Appropriate aggression on the field and off would be following all the rules of the game and in society. On the field you should always respect the officials coaches and players. Big hits are fine as long as they are clean. Off the field a players aggression should be like every normal person being able to control anger and aggression. without killing people or animals. The best way to prevent Inappropriate aggressions on the field is the do what they are doing now, penalize and fine players. This help with behavioral Issues In sports and in non sport situations. Aggression in sports By Period 5 in every situation. A big topic of discussion on aggression is if sports make us more example of aggressive and violent activity by an athlete is Michael Vick and his dog fighting situation. Michael Vick was one of the best players at his position in the NFL. He was well liked rd place in the helsman trophy race as a freshman. He was then drafted first overall there to belief that playing a sport led to violent actions. because statistics show that a football player is 80% more likely to participate in not always the case, there are thousands of way more aggressive people getting in though it is not everyone participates in the sport there are overly aggressive especially without killing people or animals. The best way to prevent inappropriate This help with behavioral issues in sports and in non sport situations.

Segregation And Discrimination In Texas Essays - Reconstruction Era

Segregation And Discrimination In Texas Segregation and Discrimination that effected Black Texans and Mexican Americans in Texas Historians have described the early twentieth century as the nadir of race relations in this country. Ironically, populism, which tried to create a biracial political coalition, helped to encourage segregation in the south. Attempting to prevent any coalition of blacks and poor white farmers, establishment Democratic politicians frequently demonstrated their Negrophobia by accusing blacks of having inherently inferior racial characteristics and warning that such innate flaws threatened society. There began a move to make African Americans outsiders, governed by political leaders for whom they could not vote and segregated by law and custom into a separate society. The movement largely succeeded. In rural areas of Texas, most blacks did not vote, as they became victims of all white primaries. As black Texans migrated to cities, however, they acquired some voting power. Excluded from political participation, black Texans watched as white officials segregated public facilities. The state legislature in 1910 and 1911 ordained that railroad stations must have separate waiting rooms and separate water fountains and restrooms existed at public facilities. It was virtually impossible for the black citizens to stay at major hotels; to eat in better restaurants, to attend most cultural or other entertainment events unless segregated, inferior seating sections were provided. Vigilante style violence as well as law enforcement agencies upheld the separate and unequal society. Texas ranked third nationally in lynching, as mobs killed over 100 blacks between 1900 and 1910. In 1916, race riots erupted periodically throughout the period. White prejudice included animosity toward black troops in the U.S. Army. Brownville whites objected to the stationing of the all black Twenty fifth Infantry at Fort Brown. They charged that the troops raided the city in 1906 in protest of discriminatory practices. Later evidence demonstrated the unfairness of the charges, but by that time President Theodore Roosevelt had dishonorably discharged 160 of the troops. Black soldiers resentment of segregation flamed into a clash with white citizens in 1917 in Houston. Without recourse to political power, blacks in Texas, as in the rest of the nation, often chose both accommodation and resistance to segregation. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) founded a chapter in 1912 in Houston, and by 1930 it had organized thirty others in the state. A Texas committee on interracial violence organized in1928 to fight extra legal acts against blacks. By then both the Dallas Morning news and the San Antonio Express had condemned lynchings. The Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching, led by Jessie Daniel Ames of Texas, mobilized strong moral opposition to violence during the 1930s. By then, most church organizations and Congressman Maury Maverick of San Antonio, who later supported a federal antilynching law, were on record as opposing racial violence. In 1942 last lynching in Texas took place. The majority of blacks stayed in rural areas, where they worked as tenants and farm laborers. As cotton prices fell, their chances to acquire their own farms decreased. Some turned to the Farmer's Improvement Society, organized by R.L. Smith in the 1890s. A Colored Farmers Educational and Cooperative Union was founded in Dallas in 1905. Other organizations established farmers' institutes and local cooperative associations. These organizations all spoke of accommodation and self help to counteract poverty and segregation. But rural Texans remained poor, and black poverty exceeded that of most whites. Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican and the organizer of the Universal Negro Association, advocated black pride, a back-to-Africa movement, and the development of black enterprises. His attempt to found a local chapter in Dallas in 1922 met with opposition, as did the efforts of Sam, from many black leaders and middle-class African Americans. The expanding economy of the 1920s did open new employment opportunities for black males as porters and chauffeurs and in building trades and oil refining. Except as janitors and laborers, the public sector hired few African Americans. The segregated communities produced a small black bourgeoisie. Ministers and teachers composed the largest occupational group of black professionals in 1930. The number of black undertakers went from 1 in 1900 to 198 in 1929, and they joined the black bourgeoisie of the period. Most black Texans lacked financial